Introduction
Within this essay my aim is to address the complex and ever-changing roles of Viking women within Pagan Scandinavian society. To do this I will discuss the multiple roles that women played/fulfilled throughout the culture in comparison to the role of men, and also the change in women’s roles that occurred due to the introduction of Christianity.
Roles of women in pagan society:
Societal/political roles
Women rarely played a role in the political system of Scandinavian culture and in most accounts were not permitted to act in any formal political fashion, such as legal witnesses, judges etc. This is supported by McTurk, who states that “Women were not supposed to perform in the political arena.” He further states that although women could inherit titles of merit (from a family member), such as a goðorð or goði (a chieftain who oversees administrative and religious duties such as trials etc) and the status, prestige and land that comes with such titles, they could not act in any formal capacity such as public speaking, judge etc, that was expected of such positions; “Although a woman could inherit a goðorð, she was not allowed to function as a goði.” McTurk 1.
However, Richard Rudgley , in his writings about the Osberg ship (a burial mound in Norway containing two female skeletons within an ornately carved ship, furnished with many luxurious items) states that, although their status is unknown, the burial and items accompanying the women suggest that one of them was either a dignitary or someone of significant importance and the other was possibly a slave/underling sacrificed to accompany her mistress in the afterlife (it is also suggested that this may be the burial site of Queen Asa). This suggests that women, albeit only in a few cases, did hold significant political roles and, as such, may have been as equally responsible/relied upon as men were to help in decisions/cases, such as trials, societal decisions etc.
Family, marital and household roles
The role of women in Scandinavian relationships was much the same as it was in other societies of that Age, i.e. to provide support to their husband, to provide and raise children, to perform household tasks such as cooking, mending clothes etc; supported by Hinds “A wife was responsible for all household matters. She nourished her family with porridges, stews, flatbreads, and cheese. She kept the house clean and tidy. She washed clothes and mended them when necessary. She spent a great deal of time spinning and weaving…”
Viking women were in many ways perceived as equals (although this is not entirely true when it comes to political status, as stated above) and as such were an integral part of society, especially as they were in charge of important tasks such as sail making (a major factor in the extensive voyages of the Vikings.) and holding feasts. Feasts were important in Pagan Scandinavian society as they were a key role and source of status and power for women, both in society and within their households. Women may have been somewhat excluded from formal political roles however, due to their important role as hostesses involving the planning and providing of luxurious feasts (including offering gifts to the guests), Viking women could achieve political favour/status for their husband/family thus enabling them to indirectly sway the political system, via their husbands, based on their successful efforts in such events; “The situation of women being in charge in the home… such matters as the seating order at tables for feasts, the food and drink provided, and the gifts presented to guests were of the utmost political importance, since they raised questions of social honour, rank and prestige among males…” McTurk .
A notable fact is that of Arnold who states “…that women’s status increased with age, whereas men’s declined.” This is probably due to the fact that the role of women involved tasks such as sewing, cooking etc. and enabled women over time to learn ‘tricks of the trade’ therefore becoming adept with expert knowledge which could then be passed on to others. The same could be said about the roles of men, however, tasks such as hunting, trading expeditions etc, would have become harder physically as men aged, therefore reducing their capability in completing the tasks, and consequently reducing their use/value within society, a factor that rarely affected the domestic roles of women within society.
Religious roles
Occasionally women were in charge/responsible for religious practices such as praying, making offerings, sacrifices etc. A possible example of this is that of the sacrifice of a slave girl to accompany her master into the afterlife, as depicted by Arnold who cites Ibid ; “…the old woman known as the Angel of Death re-entered and looped a cord around her neck and gave the crossed ends to the two men for them to pull.”. This example shows that women were included within religious practices such as sacrifices, funerals etc and may even suggest that women acted as a sort of priestess, practitioner or administrator of religious events for the local community.
Further evidence of the role of women in religious activities is that of the völur, women who were supposedly skilled in the arts of clairvoyance and the telling of fortunes; “…the völur (sing. völva), women skilled in clairvoyance and the prediction of future events.” Price. Price indicates that depictions of these völur have appeared throughout sagas and poems and that the correct practice of this was, on the whole, restricted to women, as such, these women would probably have been coveted for their unique gift. Being a völur would have meant that the roles of these particular women may have been; as council to the chief/leader, used as a means of finding missing persons, seeking truth in trials and other such important tasks.
Women and travel
Although the stereotypical view of women in Pagan Scandinavian society is that they stayed at home while their husbands went off travelling/exploring/pillaging/trading, this view is not necessarily true.
A famous example of the power/strength of Viking women is that in the ‘Laxdӕla Saga’ of Unn The Deepminded. This account tells of how, after the death of her father and son, Unn makes the decision to leave Scotland, due to the insecure nature of her position, and commissions a boat to be built in secret, “When she learned that her son had been killed she realised that she had no further prospects there, now that her father, too, was dead. So, she had a ship built secretly in a forest, and when it was completed, she loaded it with valuables and prepared it for a voyage.” Magnusson and Palsson .
Furthermore, there are multiple accounts of women accompanying their husbands/loved ones, on merchant voyages, in search of areas for settlement and even as companions to men going to war/raids; “…it is known that at least some of the warriors of the great Viking armies that were active in western Europe in the second half of the 9th century were accompanied by their wives and families.” Haywood .
Women’s roles in raiding/trading
One account of women being included in the practice of raiding is that of Moffat , who describes a Viking raid on the monastery at Clonmacnoise in the winter of 840-41 AD and the use of women to defile the sacred areas of the monastery; “He added insult to slaughter and pillage by placing his woman on the altar of the church and having her recite pagan oracles.”. This suggests that although Scandinavian women may not generally have been warriors, they did accompany men on their exploits and may have been involved in the less gruesome tasks such as desecration and removing items/artefacts.
However, according to Haywood 9 “These women would have given useful support to the army, cooking and caring for the wounded.” thus showing that women perhaps acted in more of an ‘aid and support’ type of role back at camp, rather than actually being involved in the raids/battles.
A further theory is that of Jesch who states “…many a woman ‘stole from her fatherland, preferring the sphere of war to that of marriage…”. What Jesch is depicting is that Scandinavian women, such as Alvild (a Scandinavian princess who partakes of the stereotypical life of a Viking/warrior rather than marrying Prince Alf who is trying to win her hand in marriage), did participate in war/battle roles and were freely accepted. In fact, some, such as Alvild, were highly respected and may even have led certain groups/armies; “…she was elected the pirate chief and performed feats beyond a woman’s courage.” Jesch.
Women often travelled with their husbands/loved ones on trading expeditions and may have been involved in certain trading roles. Heath explains, referring to the tale of Freydis in the Greenland saga “…some women were not averse to voyaging across dangerous seas on trading expeditions with their husbands and were entitled to share in any profit that was forthcoming.” This shows that although many women were content in their roles as household matriarchs, there were some who preferred to travel with their husbands. Heath’s writings also suggest that women may have played a part in the merchant/trading aspect of such voyages, as they were paid a share of any bounty, however this payment may have just been recompense for women’s domestic aid in cooking meals, mending clothes etc. for those on board. Also, payment could have been used as an encouragement for women to accompany men on voyages, thereby increasing morale etc. on what was a daunting task for Viking men of leaving homes/families, enduring a lesser standard of living and having little to no female company on long voyages.
Roles of women in Viking Christian society
A comparative view of pagan Viking age women and their roles in society is that of Sawyer who depicts the dramatic change in the roles of women due to the introduction of Christianity; “For women the change was dramatic; the church regarded them as subordinate to men and associated them with what was mortal and sinful. Before Christianity they could lead the faith; that leadership was now the preserve of men.” This shows how the adoption of Christianity deeply affected the place and roles of women in society. Before this women were almost regarded as equal to men (and in some circumstances were highly coveted) and appear to be significantly important in the roles of religion and religious practices, however the transition to Christianity saw the weakening of women’s standing in Scandinavian society, through the biblical concept of sin, with women being depicted as morally corrupt seductresses e.g. Adam and Eve, where Eve seduces Adam into eating the forbidden fruit causing them to be expelled from Eden.
Alternatively, one could also argue that the introduction of Christianity potentially saw an increase in women’s rights, specifically the right to decide who/if she chose to marry; “…the church insisted in principle on a women’s right not to marry against her will, and by elevating virginity as an ideal the church offered her an alternative way of life as a nun.” Sawyer14. This shows that Scandinavian women now had some freedom of choice of either marriage, or living in celibacy as a nun devoting their life to God and chastity. However, this theory is at odds when compared to Christianity in other societies of that time, where women were often bartered/sold/politically traded into marriage by their father/family members.
Archaeological evidence to support theories on the roles of women
An important and famous archaeological find, that shows the value of women and their varied roles in society, is the Oseberg ship/mound (described previously) which contained a multitude of items and is thought to be one of the most lavishly furnished burial sites uncovered to date; “…in fact the women’s grave at Oseberg in Vestfold, southern Norway, is the most magnificently furnished of all Viking age graves.” Roesdahl . This burial, when compared with similar male burials, can help indicate the varied roles women performed within Pagan Scandinavian society. This is explained by Roesdahl 15, who noted the differing elements between the items buried with men and those buried with women which, when compared over multiple sites, may denote a pattern helping us pinpoint a more accurate picture of the roles each gender performed. Where men tended to be buried with such items as weapons, tools etc, women were buried with items that highlighted their role within the household/society (i.e. cooking utensils, weaving/spinning tools and many other similar objects); “In pagan times women were buried with accoutrements that reflected the female role in society…women took household utensils, implements for needlework, spinning and weaving…” Roesdahl 15.
Roesdahl is further supported by the writings of Haywood who states “The grave goods in Pagan burials mirror these roles exactly: men were buried with weapons and tools, women with jewellery, needlework and weaving equipment, and other household utensils…”
Conclusion
One point that must be addressed is the validity and reliability of the Sagas. Vikings were, until the latter part of the Viking Age, generally illiterate, thus making the Sagas a verbal history passed down through the generations. Therefore, the Sagas can only be counted as an indication of historical information relating to the role of women, as the actual facts could have changed with each telling of the story.
The main role of women in Pagan Scandinavia was that of household matriarchs performing tasks such as cooking, cleaning, mending clothes, making new clothes, providing feasts (which helped determine Viking political/societal status) and most importantly for the Viking Age, sail making, which enabled the vast and expansive Viking explorations.
Although views vary on whether Scandinavian women were treated/viewed as men’s equals within society, women took on an equal (or close enough to equal) share of daily tasks/chores, with men undertaking tasks such as ploughing/hunting/trading etc. and women completing more household orientated tasks such as churning butter/cooking/weaving/sewing etc.
Women’s roles in religion can be seen to change as a result of the introduction of Christianity, due to the somewhat subservient level women were held in within this belief. It can also be seen that, although not usually included within the formal political sphere, women did hold positions of great respect/status.
It can, therefore, be concluded that women were an integral part of the core of Pagan Scandinavian society and performed a multitude of tasks/roles varying from the household sector to religion, and even the occasional role of adventurers and warriors.
Bibliography
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- M, Arnold. Cites Ibid (p100-1). The Vikings; Culture and Conquest. London: Continuum Books, 2006.
- J, Haywood. The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 1995.
- I, Heath. The Vikings. [In:] The Vikings: Voyagers of Discovery and Plunder. [A compiled set of the works of R, Chartrand, K, Durham, M, Harrison and I, Heath]. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2008.
- K, Hinds. Cultures of the Past: The Vikings. New York: Benchmark Books; Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 1998.
- J, Jesch. Women in the Viking Age. Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 1991.
- J, Jesch, cited Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes (1200ad). [In:] Women in the Viking Age. Suffolk, 1991.
- M, Magnusson and H, Plasson. Penguin Classics, Laxdӕla Saga. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 1969.
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- N, Price. The Archaeology of Seiðr: Circumpolar Traditions in Viking Pre-Christian Religion, 2004: < http://www.kenaz.ca/Documents/Ebooks/EBooks/Price-ArchaeologySeidr.pdf>. P.2-3. (Accessed 19/11/2009).
- E, Roesdahl. Translated by S, Margeson and K, Williams. The Vikings. London; Penguin Books Ltd, 1991.
- R, Rudgley. Barbarians; Secrets of the Dark Ages. London: Pan Macmillan Ltd, 2002.
- P, Sawyer. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford: Oxford University Press Inc, 1997.